Major Theories of Child Development: Frameworks for Learning

By Robbie Gould  |  11/04/2024

Child development is an unpredictable and fascinating process. From the moment a baby enters the world, that child’s educational growth and moral development is shaped by a combination of biological and environmental factors. This transformation, which includes the full gamut of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, is what makes child development complex and captivating.

What guides these changes? How do children develop their thinking, behavior, and personality? Psychologists and educators have been trying to answer these questions for generations. The major theories of child development help understand how a child matures and the unique paths children take as they grow.

What Are Child Development Theories?

Many child development theories explore the stages and dynamics behind the transformation from infancy through adolescence. These theories aim to answer how and why children change over time.

The major child development theories cover various areas such as cognitive development, social learning theory, and emotional growth. Some of the most notable theorists – like Jean Piaget, Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Albert Bandura, and Lev Vygotsky – have different perspectives on how children develop, although they all still contribute to a deeper understanding of human development.

Today, many popular child development theories have evolved to include a combination of psychological, social, and environmental factors. Understanding how these factors influence children is crucial for understanding their growth and providing the right support at every stage of development.

Why Child Development Theories Are Important

Child developmental theories are important because they help to explain the milestones and hurdles that children experience as they grow and mature. These theories provide educators and parents with valuable insights into what behaviors are expected, when those behaviors will occur, and how to encourage learning during each phase of development.

For example, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory suggests that children learn through interactions with others. His concept of the proximal development zone shows how children can tackle more advanced tasks with help from adults or more experienced peers. This concept is useful for parents and educators, as it guides them in providing just the right amount of support to encourage children’s growth without causing frustration or overwhelming them.

Another example is Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. Understanding Bandura’s theory allows teachers to structure activities that promote modeling and mimicry – two important factors in learning through observation. This type of learning is critical in early education classrooms, where children watch and learn from one another as much as they do from adults.

Child development theories lay the foundation for early childhood professionals and help them design age-appropriate curricula. Educators can anticipate the needs of children at various points in their growth if they're able to understand the stages of development. As a result, learning environments, such as early childhood education (ECE) settings, support both the intellectual and emotional development of children.

Developmental theories also help healthcare providers, educators, and psychologists address behavioral or developmental delays. Identifying unusual or atypical patterns, in comparison to typical child development milestones, can lead to timely interventions, which has the potential to change the course of a child’s life.

Childhood development theories contribute to a broader understanding of child development and developmental psychology. While each theory takes a slightly different approach, they all aim to answer basic questions, such as:

• How do children learn?
• What shapes their growth, both mentally and emotionally?
• How can parents, educators, and caregivers best support children at every stage of life?

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One of the most well-known and influential child development theories is Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Piaget didn’t just see children as little adults who gradually got smarter.

Instead, Piaget believed that children move through distinct stages, each with its own way of thinking and understanding the world. Piaget’s work was groundbreaking because of his idea that children are active learners – they're constantly exploring, experimenting, and figuring things out on their own terms.

Piaget’s cognitive development theory of child development breaks down into four stages:

• Sensorimotor stage (birth to two years)
• Preoperational stage (two to seven years)
• Concrete operational stage (seven to 11 years)
• Formal operational stage (12 years and up)

Sensorimotor Stage

During this stage of child development, infants explore their world mainly through their senses and movements. It’s all about touch, sight, and sound. Everything is new.

Babies are like little scientists, using hands-on experiences to test out how things work. Ever notice a baby dropping a toy just to see what happens? That’s a child figuring out cause and effect.

Preoperational Stage

 As toddlers grow into young children, they start using language to express themselves and engage in symbolic play.

Logical thinking isn’t a factor just yet. Kids often struggle with concepts like time or cause and effect at this stage, and they tend to see the world from their own perspective. 

Concrete Operational Stage

Now, the little ones start to get a bit more logical. In this child development stage, children begin to reason with greater logic, but only when it comes to concrete, tangible situations.

They understand ideas like volume, numbers, and time, but children will still need to see or experience something to fully grasp it. Hypotheticals or abstract thinking – like pondering the meaning of life – are beyond children’s understanding at this stage.

Formal Operational Stage

At this child development stage, a teen’s ability to think abstractly really kicks in. Teenagers can reason about hypothetical situations, think about the future, and consider possibilities beyond the here and now. This stage is where they start grappling with the big questions and engage in more complex problem-solving.

Piaget’s work changed the way we understand how children develop cognitively. He showed us that children don’t just passively absorb information; instead, they’re active in constantly constructing their understanding of the world in a way that makes sense to them.

Children are just beginning to learn how to think. Piaget’s cognitive development theory also highlights the importance of cognitive development happening in stages. Children aren’t simply mini-adults – they’re developing their thinking abilities in a step-by-step progression. 

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development is one of the earliest and one of the most debated child development theories in existence. Freud believed that children pass through a series of five psychosexual stages on the way to manifesting their adult personality. 

At each child development stage, Freud suggested that a specific part of the body becomes the focus of a child’s pleasure-seeking energies. These stages represent emotional conflicts that children must resolve to progress healthily, in addition to typical physical development. Freud believed that if these conflicts were not properly navigated, they could leave lasting effects on personality and behavior in adulthood.

These child development stages include:

• The oral stage (birth to one year)
• The anal stage (one to three years)
• The phallic stage (three to six years)
• The latency stage (six years to puberty)
• The genital stage (puberty onward)

Oral Stage

In this initial stage, it's all about the mouth. Babies experience pleasure through activities like sucking, chewing, and biting. Freud believed that unresolved conflicts at this stage, such as being weaned too early, could lead to habits like smoking or overeating later in life.

Anal Stage

The focus in this child development stage now shifts to control, especially around toilet training. Children are beginning to learn how to manage bodily functions, and the way caregivers handle this delicate dance can impact their feelings of autonomy. Freud suggested that conflicts during this stage may result in personality traits like extreme orderliness or messiness.

Phallic Stage

During the phallic stage, children become aware of their bodies and gender differences. Freud believed this stage is marked by the Oedipus complex, where children feel a subconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent. Freud argued that resolving these feelings is key to developing a healthy adult personality.

Latency Stage

In this child development stage, Freud described a period of relative calm where sexual feelings are dormant, and children focus on social interactions, learning, and friendships. This stage is central for developing communication skills and social bonds.

Genital Stage

The final stage emerges with puberty. Sexual desires are directed toward others as hormones take the lead.

Freud believed that a healthy adult life could only be achieved if conflicts from earlier child development stages were successfully resolved. The healthy resolution of earlier psychosexual stages would allow a child to develop fulfilling relationships throughout adolescence and into adulthood.

While many of Freud’s ideas have been critiqued or replaced by more modern approaches to child development, his theory contributed to scientific understanding of the complex relationship between physical and psychological growth. It was also important in reinforcing the idea that early childhood experiences shape who we become later in life.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Child Development

Erik Erikson is credited with coining the term “identity crisis.” This term stems from his work on psychosocial development, where he explored how individuals, particularly during adolescence, struggle to form a clear sense of self and personal identity as they transition through life’s various stages.

Erikson expanded on Freud's child development ideas by focusing on developmental stages that include social and emotional growth. Erikson also developed the psychosocial theory of development. This theory suggests that people pass through eight distinct stages of social and emotional growth throughout their lives.

However, Erikson’s theory differs from Freud, whose child development theories focused primarily on early childhood. Erikson's model extends into adulthood, and it covers the entire arc of human development. 

Each of the eight stages involves a critical crisis or conflict that must be resolved for a child to experience healthy psychological and emotional development. It is the successful resolution of these conflicts, Erikson argued, that leads to the formation of virtues such as trust, autonomy, and integrity, which are all essential components of a person’s personality.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 18 Months)

In the first child development stage, babies and toddlers are first trying to understand if the world around them is safe. It's when their basic needs – food, comfort, and affection – are consistently met that they start to feel a sense of trust and security.

But if their needs aren’t met or if they experience neglect or inconsistency mistrust can start to take root. This feeling can make it harder for them to feel secure or confident in their surroundings as they grow.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 Months to 3 Years)

As children start exploring their independence, they want to do things on their own, such as dressing themselves or choosing a snack. If children are encouraged, they will likely develop confidence.

But if they're overly criticized or controlled, they may feel shame and doubt their abilities. Those emotions can hinder their autonomy in the long run.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 Years)

Preschoolers between the ages of three to five are natural explorers who cannot contain their imagination or their excitement to try new things. When their curiosity and initiative are supported, they can start to feel confident in their abilities at this child development stage.

If they’re made to feel like their efforts are wrong or they are a nuisance, guilt can start to creep in. Guilt can make children more hesitant to take charge or make decisions, leaving them more unsure of themselves in future situations.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 Years)

At this stage, children ages 6-11 start to develop new skills and take on tasks, whether it's in the classroom or on the playing field, as well as through hobbies they enjoy. They're learning at their own pace what it means to work hard and set goals.

When they succeed, maybe through a teacher’s praise or by being recognized for their efforts, they start to feel competent and confident in what they can do. But if they experience failure repeatedly or face criticism without the right support, they may start to feel like they’re not good enough compared to others. This feeling can chip away at their self-esteem and make them less eager to try new things or tackle challenges.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 Years)

During adolescence, teenagers typically experience an identity crisis, and this stage features teenagers doing teenage things. Primarily, these teenagers are trying to figure out who they are and where they fit in the world.

This stage is an important and powerful time of self-discovery. If teenagers successfully navigate this stage, they can emerge and function with a strong sense of identity in society. If not, they may feel lost and confused about their place in life.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40)

In young adulthood, relationships now take center stage. People in this phase of human development are seeking deep and meaningful connections.

When intimate relationships are formed, they feel secure. However, without these connections, isolation and loneliness can become a major part of their experience.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65)

In middle age, people who are 40 to 65 years old often begin focusing on the legacy they want to leave behind. That legacy may include raising children, mentoring others, or making a meaningful impact on society.

In this penultimate stage, finding success in these areas brings a strong sense of purpose and fulfillment. But for those who feel unproductive or disconnected from their goals, it can lead to feelings of stagnation or a sense that they’re no longer moving forward in life.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (65 and Older)

In the final stage of life, people often look back and reflect on the paths they’ve taken. Are they feel proud of their accomplishments and at peace with the choices they've made?

If so, they tend to experience a deep sense of integrity and fulfillment. For those who feel regret or see their lives as lacking purpose, this reflection can bring feelings of despair and sadness over missed opportunities or unmet goals.

Erikson’s child development theories are particularly influential in child education as they emphasize the role of relationships and community in shaping children's sense of self and their ability to navigate social situations. His theory emphasizes that environmental interaction influences behavior; it’s not just the internal conflicts that matter, but how children are supported by those around them.

Erikson’s theory is still widely used today in fields like psychology, counseling, and education. His theory offers valuable insights into how individuals evolve emotionally and socially over time, including the influence of earlier developmental stages on later life challenges.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory and the Social Side of Learning

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory involves the powerful role that social and cultural interactions play in how children learn and grow. According to Vygotsky, kids do not develop best in isolation.

Instead, they learn better by interacting with others. The interactions children have with their parents, teachers, or peers have a large part in shaping the way they think and make sense of the world.

One of Vygotsky’s most influential ideas is the zone of proximal development. This concept involves the "sweet spot" between what children can do on their own and what they can accomplish with a little help. The theory has been a game-changer for educators, helping them figure out when to step in and offer guidance and when to let children figure things out for themselves. 

Vygotsky’s child development theory also emphasizes how much environmental interaction influences behavior. Learning is deeply tied to a child's social environment and the cultural norms in which they grow up.

Learning isn't something that happens in the same way for every child. Whether a child is in a bustling city or a rural village, their learning experiences will be shaped by the people around them and the culture they’re immersed in. 

Vygotsky reminds us that education and human development are fundamentally social processes, and that every child’s journey to maturation is unique to their surroundings and experiences.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and the Power of Observation on Human Behavior

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory offers a simple yet powerful idea: kids learn by watching others. Whether they’re watching their parents, teachers, or peers, children tend to imitate the behaviors they see.

They imitate and model their behavior and reactions based on what they observe. It is their way to pick up new habits, skills, and social behaviors. Instead of learning everything through direct lived experience, Bandura argued, children absorb so much just by passively watching how others interact with the world around them.

This child development theory is especially important in children's education because young kids are like sponges, soaking up behaviors and valuable lessons from adults, other kids, and the rest of their environment.

That's why it's crucial to model good behavior and fairness. Whether it’s learning how to share, express emotions, resolve conflict, or communicate, children are constantly watching and mimicking what they see.

Bandura’s theory also stretches beyond just face-to-face interactions. In today’s digital world, children are constantly exposed to and influenced through media platforms, such as TV shows, social media, or YouTube videos.

The time children spend on screens has a huge impact on their learning. Children often mimic what they see on these platforms, whether it’s positive or negative behavior.

Bandura’s ideas are more relevant than ever. They remind us that the behaviors children observe – whether in real life or online – have a significant impact on their early child development.

Overall, child development is a deeply intricate, puzzling process influenced by a variety of factors, ranging from biological changes to social interactions. Each of these theories offers a unique lens through which to view how children grow, learn, and adapt to the world around them.

The beauty of these developmental theories is that they provide us with actionable insights. They help us recognize the milestones and challenges that children face and offer strategies to encourage healthy development. The more we understand about child development theory, the better equipped we are to help them become capable, confident, and compassionate individuals.

Childhood Education Degrees at American Military University

For adult learners interested in childhood education, American Military University (AMU) offers an online associate degree in early childhood care and education and an online bachelor's degree in human development and family studies. 

Courses in these programs include childhood educational development, infant and toddler programs, special needs students, and parenting. Other courses include introduction to child development, child and adolescent development, and introduction to the American family.

These courses are taught by experienced faculty members with a deep knowledge of education. For more information about AMU’s education degree programs and certificates, visit our education program page.